Materi Pelatihan Perencana Ahli Pertama – Kebudayaan dan Masyarakat

Materi Pelatihan Perencana Ahli Pertama – Kebudayaan dan Masyarakat

Irfan Nugraha

Apa itu kebudayaan?

• Kenapa orang lain memiliki pola pikir berbeda?
• Kenapa orang lain bertindak secara berbeda?
• Kenapa orang lain mempunyai identitas berbeda?
• Kenapa orang lain meyakini hal berbeda?

Definisi Kebudayaan

“Kebudayaan adalah keseluruhan sistem gagasan, tindakan dan hasil karya manusia dalam rangka kehidupan masyarakat yang dijadikan milik diri manusia dengan belajar.”

Koentjaraningrat. (2004). Kebudayaan, Mentalitas dan Pembangunan. Gramedia Pustaka Utama.

“Culture or Civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits aquired by man as a member of society.”

Edward B. Tylor. (1871). Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Phylosophy, Religion, Language, Art and Custom. Henry Holt and Company.

“Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics common to the members of a particular group or society. Through culture, people and groups define themselves, conform to society’s shared values, and contribute to society.”

Culture and Society Defined. CliffNotes Sociology Study Guides.

“Culture is essential for our individual survival and for our communication with other people. We rely on culture because we are not born with the information we need to survive.”

• Culture is essential for the survival of societies.
• It establishes our laws and rules for interaction.

Introduction to Sociology. University of Manitoba.

Bagaimana Kebudayaan Muncul Dalam Kehidupan Sehari-hari?

Wujud Kebudayaan:

• Gagasan
• Tindakan
• Material

Unsur Kebudayaan Universal

• Bahasa
• Sistem Pengetahuan
• Sistem Kemasyarakatan
• Sistem Peralatan Hidup dan Teknologi
• Sistem Mata Pencaharian Hidup
• Sistem Kepercayaan
• Kesenian

Perspektif Kebudayaan

“To make the strange familiar, and the familiar strange.”

• Strangeness, the unfamiliar is scary and can lead to misguided feelings of anger and hate, which may eventually lead to warfare and death.
  • Most interpersonal or inter-group conflicts are caused by a lack of understanding.
  • Discovering similarities between one’s own culture and that of others leads to more harmonious relationships.

Katherine Schaefers. (2013). Anthropology 1 - Physical Anthropology

Etic/Emic Analysis

Etic Analysis: Viewing and labeling a culture with our own words and terms.

• Advantages: Finding patterns that the studied group may be unaware of. Applying an Etic Analysis to all cultures that you study makes it easier to identify Human Universals. Terms and categories can be made for new information to be nicely organized. Etic Analysis is mainly used in Anthropological studies.

Emic Analysis: Viewing a culture through the eyes of the people being studied.

• Advantages: Better understanding of the studied culture, but much, much harder to attain. Argument: is it even possible to see through the eyes of another culture? To undo and place aside one’s own worldview and wholly adopt another?

Katherine Schaefers. (2014). Anthropology 2A - Cultural Anthropology

A Holistic Perspective

We must look to all aspects of the culture’s society for the answer:

• How do people make a living in a different types of society?
• What is an economy, and what is economizing behaviour?
• What principles regulate the exchange of goods and services in various societies?

Conrad P. Kottak. (2015). Cultural Anthropology: Appreciating Cultural Diversity. McGraw Hill.

Cohen’s Adaptive Strategies

Typology of societies:

• Foraging (hunting-gathering)
• Holticulture
• Agriculture
• Pastoralism
• Industrialism

Yehudi A. Cohen. (1971). Man in Adaptation: The Institutional Framework. Routledge

Mode of Production

Economy: system for the production, distribution, and consumption of resources.

“Mode of production: a specific, historically occuring set of social relations through which labor is deployed to wrest energy from nature by means on tools, skills, organization, and knowledge.”

Eric R. Wolf. (2010). Europe and the People Without History. University of California Press.

Polanyi’s Principles of Exchange

Three principles orienting exchanges:

• Market principle
• Redistribution
• Reciprocity

Karl Polanyi. (2014). The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origin of Our Time. Beacon Press.

Economizing and Maximizing

Economic anthropologists have been concerned with two main questions:

1. How are production, distribution, and consumption organized in different societies?
2. What motivates people in different cultures to prouce, distribute or exchange, and consume?

• Anthropologists view both economic systems and motivations in a cross-cultural perspective.
• Economizing: rational allocation of scarce means (resources) to altenative ends (uses).
• Classical economic theory assumes that our wants are infinite and that our means are limited.

Perubahan Sosial

• Struktural (institusi dan kelas sosial)
• Kebudayaan (gagasan, perilaku, karya)
• Interaksi sosial (relasi sosial)

Ethnography: Bagaimana Mengidentifikasi Kebudayaan

• Etnografi adalah (salah satu) metode untuk mendeskripsikan kebudayaan.
• Tujuan etnografi adalah memahami cara hidup orang lain berdasarkan sudut pandangnya (emic perspective).

• Ethnography: anthropology’s distinctive strategy
  • Anthropology emerged as a distinctive field of inquiry.
  • Ethnography thus emerged as a research strategy in societies with less social differentiation than is found in large, modern,
    industrial nations.
  • Traditionally, ethnographers have tried to understand the whole of a particular culture (or, more realistically, as much as they can,
    given limitations of time and perception).
  • The ethnographer moves from setting to setting, place to place, and subject to subject to discover the totality and interconnectedness of social life.
• Observant and participation observation
  • Ethnographers must pay attention to hundreds of details of daily life, seasonal events, and unusual happenings.
  • Many ethnographers record their impressions in a personal diary, which is kept separate from more formal field notes.
  • The ethnographer eventually grows accustomed to, and accepts as normal, cultural patterns that initially were alien. Staying a bit more than a year in the field allows the ethnographer to repeat the season of his or her arrival, when certain events and processes may have been missed because of initial unfamiliarity and culture shock.
• Conversation, interviewing, and interview schedules
  • Participating in local life means that ethnographers constantly talk to people and ask questions. As their knowledge of the local language and culture increases, they understand more.
• The Genealogical Method
  • Everyone is related and spends most of his or her time with relatives.
  • Anthropologists need to collect genealogical data to understand current social relations and to reconstruct history.

Conrad P. Kottak. (2015). Cultural Anthropology: Appreciating Cultural Diversity. McGraw Hill.

• When ethnographers study other cultures, they must deal with three fundamental aspects of human experience: what people do, what people know, and what the things people make and use.
• The essential core of ethnography is this concern with the meaning of actions and events to the people we seek to understand.
• Cultural knowledge exists at two levels of consciousness. Explicit culture makes up part of what we know, a level of knowledge people can communicate about with relative ease. At the same time, a large portion of our cultural knowledge remains tacit, outside our awareness.

James P. Spradley. (1980). Participant Observation. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.

• An etnography attempts to be holistic—covering as much teritory as possinle about culture, subculture, or program—but it necessarily falls far short of the whole.
• The emic perspective—the insider’s or native’s perspective of reality—is at the heart of the most ethnographic research. The insider’s perception of reality is instrumental to understanding and accurately describing situations and behaviours.
• An etic perspective is the external, social scientific perspective of reality.
• A nonjudgmental orientation requires the ethnographer to suspend personal valuation of any given cultural practice.
• Contextualizing data involves placing observations into a larger perspective.
• Ethnographers look for symbols that help them understand and describe a culture. Symbols are condensed expressions of meaning that evoke powerful feelings and thoughts.
• Operationalism, simply, means defining one’s terms and methods of measurement.
• Establishing a significant relationship between facts and theory, or interpreting “the facts,” requires greater specificity.

David M. Fetterman. (2010). Etnography: Step-by-Step. SAGE.

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